Iñupiatun

=Introduction=

Iñupiatun or Inupiaq, also known as Iñupiat, Inupiat, Iñupiaq, or Alaskan Inuit, represents an Inuit language or, possibly, a group of languages. It is spoken by the Iñupiat people in the northern and northwestern regions of Alaska, as well as in a small adjacent part of the Northwest Territories of Canada and historically in the Big Diomede Island of Russia. As a member of the Eskaleut language family, Iñupiatun shares close linguistic ties and varying degrees of mutual intelligibility with other Inuit languages spoken in Canada and Greenland. The language is at risk, with an estimated 2,000 speakers, most of whom are 40 years old or older. Recognizing its cultural importance, Iñupiaq has attained official language status in the State of Alaska, alongside several other indigenous languages.

The primary variants of the Iñupiatun language are the North Slope Iñupiaq and Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq dialects.

Iñupiaq has faced a decline since the late 19th century due to contact with English. Factors such as American territorial acquisition and the historical influence of boarding schools have contributed to a situation where a minority of Iñupiat individuals speak the language today. Despite these challenges, ongoing revitalization efforts are being undertaken in various communities to preserve and promote the Iñupiatun language.

=Background=

Iñupiaq, also known as Uqausiq or Uqausriq Iñupiatun, and Qanġuziq, Qaġnuziq, or Qanġusiq Inupiatun, is a Native American language spoken in the United States (formerly Russia) and the Northwest Territories of Canada. The language is primarily associated with the Iñupiat ethnic group, numbering 20,709 individuals in 2015.

The region where Iñupiaq is spoken includes Alaska, with historical ties to Big Diomede Island. As of 2023, there are approximately 1,250 fully fluent speakers of Iñupiaq. The language belongs to the Eskimo–Aleut language family, specifically the Inuit branch, and has evolved from early forms such as Proto-Eskimo–Aleut, Proto-Eskimo, and Proto-Inuit.

The writing system for Iñupiaq utilizes the Latin alphabet, known as the Iñupiaq alphabet, and includes a Braille system for the language. In terms of official status, Iñupiaq is recognized as an official language in Alaska and holds official status in the Northwest Territories, where it is specifically identified as the Uummarmiutun dialect.

The language is classified under ISO 639-1 code "ik," ISO 639-2 code "ipk," and ISO 639-3 code "ipk" as the inclusive code. Additionally, individual codes are assigned for specific dialects, such as "esi" for North Alaskan Iñupiatun and "esk" for Northwest Alaska Iñupiatun.

Linguistic classification and identification are facilitated through Glottolog, with the code "inup1234," and the Endangered Languages Project (ELP) recognizes Iñupiaq as a language of significance.

=History=

The Iñupiatun language, belonging to the Inuit language family, likely traces its roots back to the ancestors who may have spoken it in the northern regions of Alaska for up to 5,000 years. Approximately 1,000 to 800 years ago, Inuit migrations from Alaska to Canada and Greenland occurred, leading to their eventual settlement along the entire Arctic coast and much of the surrounding inland areas. Among Inuit languages, Iñupiatun dialects stand out as the most conservative forms, displaying less linguistic change than their counterparts.

In the mid to late 19th century, Iñupiat people encountered Russian, British, and American colonists. In 1885, Rev. Sheldon Jackson was appointed General Agent of Education by the American territorial government. Under his administration, Iñupiat individuals, along with all Alaska Natives, underwent education in English-only environments, with the use of Iñupiatun and other indigenous languages being forbidden. This English-only policy persisted for decades, with strict penalties for speaking Iñupiatun. Consequently, by the 1970s, many Iñupiat refrained from passing on the Iñupiaq language to their children, fearing reprisals for its use.

While, in Russia, Iñupiatun was fairly remained independently until the scope of the 20th century. As the Soviet Union conducted the relocation policy for the Far Eastern indigenous population during the Second World War and the following Cold War, the Big Diomede Islanders were subjected to be forcibly relocated to settlements in the mainland including Uelen, Lavrentiya, and Lorino. As the independent language environment was demolished, within few years, the Iñupiatun in Russia were virtually gone as the Inuit were linguistically assimilated to Centrai Siberian Yupik and Russian languages. However, some Iñupiaq linguistic features are still preserved and strengthen through the contemporary trades and shares with the Iñupiat of Alaska.

In 1972, the Alaska Legislature enacted legislation requiring schools attended by at least 15 pupils whose primary language is not English to have at least one teacher fluent in the native language.

Today, the University of Alaska Fairbanks offers bachelor's degrees in Iñupiatun language and culture. Additionally, Nikaitchuat Iḷisaġviat, an immersion school in Kotzebue, provides education in Iñupiaq for PreK-1st grade. In 2014, Iñupiatun gained official language status in the State of Alaska, joining English and nineteen other indigenous languages.

In 2018, Facebook introduced Iñupiatun as a language option on its website, and in 2022, an Iñupiaq version of Wordle was developed.

=Dialects=

There are four primary dialect divisions within the Iñupiaq language, and these can be grouped into two broader dialect collections:

1. Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq: Spoken on the Seward Peninsula. Exhibits a potential Yupik substrate and differs from other Inuit languages. Includes Qawiaraq and Bering Strait sub-dialects.

1.1 Bering Strait Dialect (Kinugumiutun): The Native population of Big Diomede Island relocated to the Siberian mainland post-World War II, where the subsequent generation spoke Central Siberian Yupik or Russian. The entire population of King Island moved to Nome in the early 1960s. The Bering Strait dialect might also be spoken in Teller on the Seward Peninsula.

1.2 Qawiaraq Dialect (Kauweramiutun): A Qawiaraq dialect is spoken in Nome. Another Qawiaraq sub-dialect may be spoken in Koyuk, Mary's Igloo, Council, Elim, and potentially Unalakleet.

2. Northern Alaskan Iñupiaq: Spoken from the Northwest Arctic and North Slope regions of Alaska to the Mackenzie Delta in Northwest Territories, Canada. Includes Malimiut and North Slope sub-dialects.

2.1 Malimiutun Dialect: Both sub-dialects are present in Buckland, Koyuk, Shaktoolik, and Unalakleet. A Malimiutun dialect may be spoken in Deering, Kiana, Noorvik, Shungnak, and Ambler. Classified as "Southern Malimiut" (found in Koyuk, Shaktoolik, and Unalakleet) and "Northern Malimiut" (found in other villages).

2.2 North Slope Dialect (Tagiugmiutun): Common North Slope is described as "a mix of the various speech forms formerly used in the area." The Point Barrow dialect was spoken by only a few elders in 2010. A North Slope dialect is also spoken in Kivalina, Point Lay, Wainwright, Atqasuk, Utqiaġvik, Nuiqsut, and Barter Island.

=Phonology=

Iñupiaq dialects showcase considerable consonantal variations. Notably, consonant clusters exceeding two consecutive consonants are absent, prohibiting words from commencing or concluding with such clusters.

All Iñupiaq dialects feature three fundamental vowel qualities: /a i u/. Currently, there is no established instrumental analysis to identify allophones associated with these vowels. Each vowel can be either short or long, resulting in a phonemic six-vowel system: /a aː i iː u uː/. Lengthened vowels are denoted by double letters in the orthography: ⟨aa⟩, ⟨ii⟩, ⟨uu⟩. Additionally, diphthongs such as /ai ia au ua iu ui/ occur, limited to sequences of no more than two vowels in Iñupiaq.

The Bering Strait dialect introduces a fourth vowel /e/, preserving the fourth proto-Eskimo vowel (ə). In contrast, other dialects merge proto-Eskimo /e/ with the closed front vowel /i/. This merged /i/ is termed "strong /i/," leading to palatalization when preceding consonant clusters in the North Slope dialect. The unmerged /i/ is designated "weak /i/," with no orthographic differentiation.

Words in Iñupiaq initiate with stops (excluding the palatal stop /c/), fricative /s/, nasals /m n/, vowels, or the semivowel /j/. In the Uummarmiutun dialect, words may also commence with /h/. Word endings accommodate any nasal sound, stops /t k q/, or a vowel. Notably, in the North Slope dialect, if a word concludes with /m/ and the subsequent word begins with a stop, the /m/ transforms into /p/.

Limited information exists on Iñupiaq prosody, but parameters such as fundamental frequency, intensity, loudness, and spectral tilt may be crucial in Malimiutun.

North Slope Iñupiaq Phonemes:

Nasals: /m n ɲ ŋ ɴ/ Stops: /p t c k q ʔ/ Fricatives: /f s ʂ x χ h v ʐ ɣ ʁ/ Lateral: /ɬ ʎ/ Approximant: /j/ The voiceless stops /p t k q/ are not aspirated. The palatal stop /c/ derives from a palatalized and unreleased /t/.

Assimilation:

Consonants can only coexist if they share the manner of articulation, except for a voiced fricative with a nasal. Voiceless stops assimilate to voiced consonants based on the shared area and manner of articulation.

Palatalization:

Palatalization patterns include transformations like /t/ → /t̚ʲ, tʃ, s/ and /ɬ/ → /ʎ̥/. Palatalization occurs with a strong /i/ preceding certain alveolars. Strong /i/ affects entire consonant clusters, palatalizing applicable consonants.

Gemination:

In North Slope Iñupiaq, all consonants except /tʃ s h ʂ/ can be geminated. Seward Peninsula Iñupiaq allows gemination for all orthographically represented consonants, except /b h ŋ ʂ w z ʐ/. Gemination results from suffixes inserted between two vowels.

=Writing System=

Overview: The evolution of the Iñupiaq writing system reflects the cultural encounters and linguistic developments over time. Initially recorded by explorers in Alaska, the writing system faced inconsistencies as writers adapted their native language's letters to capture the sounds of the Iñupiaq language. Challenges arose due to unfamiliar sounds being conflated, leading to, for instance, the non-distinction between 'q' and 'k,' as well as between long and short consonants or vowels.

Adoption of Latin Script: In tandem with the Alaskan and Siberian Yupik, the Iñupiat eventually embraced the Latin script developed by Moravian missionaries in Greenland and Labrador. Native Alaskans also experimented with pictographs, although this system faded with its creators.

1946 Reformation: A pivotal moment in the Iñupiaq writing system occurred in 1946 when Roy Ahmaogak, an Iñupiaq Presbyterian minister from Utqiaġvik, collaborated with Eugene Nida of the Summer Institute of Linguistics. This collaboration led to the creation of the current Iñupiaq alphabet based on the Latin script. Although some modifications have been introduced, such as the transition from 'ḳ' to 'q,' the core system remains accurate and is still in use.

Current Iñupiaq Alphabets:

North Slope and Northwest Arctic:

A a Ch ch G g Ġ ġ H h I i K k L l Ḷ ḷ Ł ł Ł̣ ł̣ M m N n Ñ ñ Ŋ ŋ P p Q q R r S s Sr sr T t U u V v Y y

Extra letter for Kobuk dialect: ʼ /ʔ/

Seward Peninsula:

A a B b G g Ġ ġ H h I i K k L l Ł ł M m N n Ŋ ŋ P p Q q R r S s Sr sr T t U u V v W w Y y Z z Zr zr ʼ

Canadian Iñupiaq (Uummarmiutun):

A a Ch ch F f G g H h Dj dj I i K k L l Ł ł M m N n Ñ ñ Ng ng P p Q q R r R̂ r̂ T t U u V v Y y

These alphabets capture the diverse phonetic nuances of the Iñupiaq language across different regions and dialects.

=Morphosyntax=

Due to the variety of dialects and the intricate morphosyntax of Iñupiaq, the subsequent section focuses on Malimiutun morphosyntax as a representative example. Any instances from other dialects will be explicitly identified.

Iñupiaq is categorized as a polysynthetic language, wherein words can be notably lengthy, comprising one of three stems (verb stem, noun stem, and demonstrative stem) alongside one or more of three endings (postbases, grammatical endings, and enclitics). The stem imparts meaning to the word, while endings provide details related to case, mood, tense, person, plurality, etc. Stems may manifest as either simple (lacking postbases) or complex (featuring one or more postbases). In Iñupiaq, a postbase functions somewhat akin to adverbs, adjectives, prefixes, and suffixes in English, additionally indicating various types of tenses. Malimiut Iñupiaq comprises six word classes: nouns, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, conjunctions, and interjections. All demonstratives are categorized as either adverbs or pronouns.

Nominal morphology:

The number category in Iñupiaq distinguishes between singular, dual, and plural, employing an Ergative-Absolutive system where nouns undergo inflection for number, various cases, and possession. Malimiutun Iñupiaq features nine cases: two core cases (ergative and absolutive) and seven oblique cases (instrumental, allative, ablative, locative, perlative, similative, and vocative). Notably, the North Slope Iñupiaq lacks the vocative case. Gender and articles are absent in Iñupiaq. Nouns can be classified into seven classes based on morphological behavior, guided by Wolf A. Seiler's system.

The morphology allows a single case to exhibit up to 12 endings, ignoring variations based on noun class. For instance, the possessed ergative ending for a class 1a noun can take on endings like -ma, -mnuk, -pta, -vich, -ptik, -psi, -mi, -mik, -miŋ, -ŋan, -ŋaknik, and -ŋata. Thus, the subsequent descriptions will focus on general features.

Absolutive case/noun stems:

The absolutive case, marking the subject of an intransitive sentence or the object of a transitive sentence, is used to denote the basic form of a noun. It involves singular endings like -q, -k, -n, or any vowel; dual -k; and plural -t. Modifications occur based on the underlying form of the noun, as seen in examples such as tiŋmisuun (airplane) evolving into tiŋmisuutik (two airplanes) and tiŋmisuutit (multiple airplanes). Nouns with underlying weak i (/ə/) undergo specific changes in the dual form.

Ergative case:

Referred to as the Relative Case in Iñupiaq sources, the ergative case marks the subject of a transitive sentence or a genitive noun phrase. The ergative endings include -m, with allophones -um and -im. Examples illustrate the application of this suffix, such as aŋun → aŋutim (man → man in the ergative) and aŋatchiaq → aŋatchiaŋma (uncle → my two uncles in the ergative).

Instrumental case:

Also known as the modalis case, the instrumental case serves various functions, including marking nouns representing means by which the subject achieves something and indicating the apparent patient of syntactically intransitive verbs. Examples demonstrate its usage, such as Aŋuniaqtim aġviġluaq tuqutkaa nauligamik (The hunter killed the gray whale with a harpoon) and Miñułiqtugut umiamik (We're painting a boat). The instrumental endings encompass -mik for singular, [dual absolutive stem] -nik for dual, and [singular absolutive stem] -nik for plural.

Allative case:

Also referred to as the terminalis case, the allative case signifies motion or an action directed towards a goal. It is used to convey that the statement is for the purpose of the marked noun, indicate the beneficiary of the statement, and mark the noun being addressed to. Examples include Qaliŋaum Qaliŋak-erg quppiġaaq atauksritchaa Nauyamun (Qaliŋak lent a coat to Nauyaq) and Qaliŋaŋmun Qaliŋaŋmun-all uqautirut (They (plural) told Qaliŋak). The allative endings consist of -mun for singular, [dual absolutive stem] -nun for dual, and [singular absolutive stem] -nun for plural.

Numerals:

Iñupiaq numerals follow a base-20 system with a sub-base of 5. The sub-base is evident in words for 5 (tallimat) and 15 (akimiaq), with subsequent numbers formed by adding 1 through 19. The system extends to large numbers, employing compound suffixes for multiples of 400 and 8000. There's also a decimal system for hundreds and thousands, utilizing qavluun for 100 and kavluutit for 1000.

Etymology:

The etymology of numerals reveals connections with body parts and spatial concepts, such as tallimat (5) derived from the word for hand/arm, and qulit (10) from "top," signifying the ten digits. Akimiaq (15) conveys the idea of "it goes across," while iñuiññaq (20) suggests an "entire person" or "complete person," referring to the 20 digits of extremities.

Verbal morphology:

Malimiutun Iñupiaq serves as an exemplar for verbal morphology. The basic structure of a verb includes a verb stem, derivational suffix, inflectional suffix, and enclitic. Tense marking is optional, with future tense explicitly marked. Aspect distinctions include perfective versus imperfective, frequentative, habitual, inchoative, and intentional. Mood categories encompass indicative, interrogative, imperative (positive and negative), coordinative, and conditional. Participles are sometimes considered a mood. Examples illustrate their usage.

Syntax:

Syntactic operations in Malimiut Iñupiaq rely heavily on morphological means, with an ergative-absolutive case system evident in nominal case markings and verb agreement. The basic word order is subject-object-verb, but flexibility allows for omissions of subject and/or object. Word order tendencies include placing the subject of a transitive verb before its object and the subject of an intransitive verb before the verb. The language features morphological passive, antipassive, causative, and applicative constructions.

Noun incorporation:

Noun incorporation is prevalent in Malimiutun Iñupiaq, taking various forms like lexical compounding, manipulation of case, manipulation of discourse structure, and classificatory noun incorporation. These forms impact meaning and syntactic structure, exemplified in sentences like Anarnun iaŋaŋat nuna ivaŋiqługut (My brothers and I are coming from the other side of the river).

Clusivity:

Clusivity is a grammatical distinction in Iñupiaq, notably manifested in first person plural pronouns. The inclusive "we" includes the listener, while the exclusive "we" excludes the listener. Example sentences illustrate the application of clusivity in Iñupiaq.

Discourse and pragmatic features:

Malimiut Iñupiaq exhibits discourse particles, topic prominence, and pragmatic markers, influencing discourse structure and interpersonal relationships. These features contribute to effective communication within the cultural context.

Orthography:

The writing system for Iñupiaq employs a modified Latin alphabet, introduced by missionaries in the 19th century. The orthography has undergone revisions over time, with standardized versions currently used in education and publications. Challenges in representing sounds like glottal stops and nasal vowels are addressed through diacritic marks. Examples illustrate the correspondence between sounds and letters in the orthography.

Language vitality:

The vitality of Iñupiaq is a topic of concern, with efforts made to revitalize and sustain the language through educational initiatives, community programs, and technological resources. Challenges include the impact of historical events, societal changes, and globalization on language use and transmission.

In conclusion, the detailed analysis provides insights into the intricate morphosyntax of Iñupiaq, focusing on Malimiutun Iñupiaq as a representative example. The examination covers nominal and verbal morphology, numeral systems, etymology, syntactic features, clusivity, discourse elements, orthography, and language vitality. The multifaceted nature of Iñupiaq reflects its rich cultural and linguistic heritage, emphasizing the need for continued efforts to preserve and promote this unique language.