Kalaallisut

=Introduction=

Greenlandic, known as kalaallisut in Greenlandic and grønlandsk in Danish, belongs to the Eskimo–Aleut language family and boasts around 57,000 speakers, primarily among Greenlandic Inuit in Greenland. This language shares close ties with Inuit languages in Canada, such as Inuktitut, and stands as the most widely spoken Eskimo–Aleut language. In June 2009, Greenland's government, the Naalakkersuisut, declared Greenlandic as the sole official language of the autonomous territory to reinforce it against the influence of the colonial language, Danish. The primary variety is Kalaallisut, or West Greenlandic, while the second variety is Tunumiit oraasiat, or East Greenlandic. Inuktun or Polar Eskimo, the language of the Inughuit (Thule Inuit) of Greenland, is a recent arrival and a dialect of Inuktitut.

Greenlandic is characterized as a polysynthetic language, enabling the formation of lengthy words by combining roots and suffixes. The morphosyntactic alignment of the language is ergative, treating the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb in a similar way, but treating the subject of a transitive verb differently. For instance, "he plays the guitar" is in the ergative case as a transitive agent, whereas "I bought a guitar" and "as the guitar plays" (intransitive sense) would both be in the absolutive case.

Nouns undergo inflection for one of eight cases and for possession, while verbs are inflected for one of eight moods and for the number and person of their subject and object. Both nouns and verbs exhibit complex derivational morphology, and the basic word order in transitive clauses is subject–object–verb. Greenlandic utilizes special subordinate moods for the subordination of clauses, and a fourth-person category facilitates switch-reference between main and subordinate clauses with different subjects.

Noteworthy is Greenlandic's absence of grammatical tense, with temporal relations typically conveyed through context, temporal particles like "yesterday" or "now," or derivational suffixes and affix combinations with aspectual meanings aligning with the semantic lexical aspect of different verbs. Some linguists posit that Greenlandic consistently marks future tense. The language readily forms new words for novel concepts or technologies from Greenlandic roots but has also adopted numerous loanwords from Danish and English.

Since Danish colonization in the 1700s, Greenlandic has been written in the Latin script. The first orthography, developed by Samuel Kleinschmidt in 1851, underwent a substantial reform in 1973 to enhance learnability. This reform significantly increased Greenlandic literacy, ranking it among the highest in the world.

=Background=

Greenlandic, known as kalaallisut in the native tongue and grønlandsk in Danish, is spoken primarily in Greenland, with some presence in Denmark among the Greenlandic Inuit ethnic group. The language belongs to the Eskimo–Aleut language family, specifically the Inuit branch. It has approximately 57,000 speakers as of 2007. The dialects of Greenlandic include Kalaallisut, the main variety, and Tunumiisut, representing East Greenlandic.

Greenlandic is written using the Latin script and Scandinavian Braille. It holds official language status in Greenland and is recognized as a minority language in Denmark. Oqaasileriffik is the regulatory body overseeing the language. The language is identified by ISO codes 639-1 (kl), ISO 639-2 (kal), and ISO 639-3 (kal). In terms of linguistics, Greenlandic falls under the Glottolog classification gree1280 and is recognized by the Endangered Languages Project (ELP) as Kalaallisut. The IETF language tag for Greenlandic is 'kl.'

=History=

Greenlandic arrived in Greenland with the Thule people during the 1200s, supplanting the languages spoken by the earlier Saqqaq and Dorset cultures, the details of which remain unknown.

Descriptions of Greenlandic first emerged in the 1600s, with Danish missionaries arriving in the early 1700s, marking the onset of Danish colonization. The missionary Paul Egede contributed significantly to the language by creating the first Greenlandic dictionary in 1750 and the first grammar in 1760.

Between the 1700s and the advent of Greenlandic home rule in 1979, the language faced growing pressure from Danish, particularly during the 1950s when Danish linguistic policies aimed at strengthening Danish were implemented. Education and official functions conducted in Danish contributed to this linguistic influence.

From 1851 to 1973, Greenlandic was written using a complex orthography developed by Samuel Kleinschmidt, a missionary linguist. A new orthography introduced in 1973 aimed to align the written language with the spoken standard, resulting in improved Greenlandic literacy.

The "Greenlandization" policy, initiated with the home rule agreement in 1979, played a crucial role in elevating the status of the Greenlandic language. This policy reversed the trend of language marginalization by making Greenlandic the official language of education. Primary schooling, conducted solely in Greenlandic, has led to bilingualism in Danish and Greenlandic among children of monolingual Danish-speaking parents.

Greenlandic media, including the Greenlandic National Radio (Kalaallit Nunaata Radioa) and the newspaper Sermitsiaq, have contributed to the promotion of the language. Greenlandic became the sole official language in June 2009, a unique status for an indigenous language recognized as the only official language of a semi-independent country. Despite this, UNESCO considers Greenlandic to be in a "vulnerable" state according to the Red Book of Language Endangerment. Greenland boasts a 100% literacy rate, with efforts being made to protect the endangered Eastern Greenlandic dialect, as the Western Greenlandic standard has become dominant.

=Classification=

Kalaallisut, along with other Greenlandic dialects, belongs to the Eskimo–Aleut family and shares close ties with the Inuit languages spoken in Canada and Alaska. In Illustration 1, the locations of various Inuit languages are depicted, including the primary dialects of Greenlandic and the distinct language Inuktun ("Avanersuaq").

An example highlighting differences among the three main dialects is demonstrated in the word for "humans":

-English: humans -Kalaallisut: inuit -Inuktun: inughuit -Tunumiisut: iivit

The predominant Greenlandic dialect is Kalaallisut, serving as the official language of Greenland. Often, the term Kalaallisut is used broadly to encompass all Greenlandic varieties. The eastern dialect (Tunumiit oraasiat), spoken near Ammassalik Island and Ittoqqortoormiit, stands out as the most innovative among Greenlandic dialects, having assimilated consonant clusters and vowel sequences more extensively than West Greenlandic.

Kalaallisut further divides into four subdialects. The one spoken around Upernavik exhibits similarities to East Greenlandic, suggesting a potential influence from a past migration. Another dialect is spoken in the Uummannaq region and Disko Bay. The standard language is based on the central Kalaallisut dialect spoken in Sisimiut in the north, encompassing Nuuk to Maniitsoq in the south. Southern Kalaallisut is spoken around Narsaq and Qaqortoq. Table 1 illustrates differences in the pronunciation of the word for "humans" in the two main dialects and Inuktun, showcasing Inuktun's conservatism by maintaining ⟨gh⟩, elided in Kalaallisut, and Tunumiisut's innovation by further simplifying its structure through the elision of /n/.

=Phonology=

Vowels:

In the realm of Greenlandic vowels, the language features a distinctive three-vowel system, comprising /i/, /u/, and /a/, characteristic of Eskimo–Aleut languages. The pronunciation of double vowels involves an analysis as two morae, making them a phonological vowel sequence rather than a long vowel. Orthographically, they are represented as two separate vowels. A sole diphthong, /ai/, exists and is confined to word endings. Preceding a uvular consonant (/q/ or /ʁ/), /i/ manifests allophonically as [e], [ɛ], or [ɐ], while /u/ takes on allophonic realizations as [o] or [ɔ]. These two vowels are denoted in writing as ⟨e, o⟩, akin to some orthographies employed for Quechua and Aymara. Within the same environment, /a/ undergoes retraction to [ɑ]. /i/ experiences rounding to [y] before labial consonants, while /u/ shifts forward to [ʉ] between two coronal consonants.

The modern orthography reflects the allophonic lowering of /i/ and /u/ before uvular consonants by representing them as ⟨e⟩ and ⟨o⟩ respectively before ⟨q⟩ and ⟨r⟩. For instance:

- /ui/ "husband" is pronounced [ui]. - /uiqarpuq/ "(s)he has a husband" is pronounced [ueqɑppɔq] and written ⟨ueqarpoq⟩. - /illu/ "house" is pronounced [iɬɬu]. - /illuqarpuq/ "(s)he has a house" is pronounced [iɬɬoqɑppɔq] and written ⟨illoqarpoq⟩.

Consonants:

Moving on to Greenlandic consonants, the language exhibits various articulations across different positions:

- **Labial:** [p ⟨p⟩], [m ⟨m⟩] - **Alveolar:** [t ⟨t⟩], [n ⟨n⟩] - **Palatal:** [t͡s ⟨t͡s⟩], [j ⟨j⟩] - **Velar:** [k ⟨k⟩], [ŋ ⟨ng⟩] - **Uvular:** [q ⟨q⟩], [ʁ ⟨r⟩] - **Lateral Fricatives:** [ɬ ⟨ll⟩] - **Others:** [v ⟨v⟩], [s ⟨s⟩], [ʃ ⟨sh⟩], [ɣ ⟨g⟩], [ɴ ⟨rn⟩]

Notably, the palatal sibilant [ʃ] has merged with [s] in most dialects, except for those in the Sisimiut–Maniitsoq–Nuuk–Paamiut region. The labiodental fricative [f] is only distinctive in loanwords. The alveolar stop /t/ transforms into an affricate [t͡s] before the high front vowel /i/. In Danish loanwords, the written ⟨b, d, g⟩ are retained without affecting pronunciation, such as ⟨baaja⟩ [paːja] for "beer" and ⟨Guuti⟩ [kuːtˢi] for "God," both pronounced exactly as /p, t, k/.

=Grammar=

Morphology:

Greenlandic grammar, akin to other Eskimo languages, operates on morphological and syntactic planes, characterized by a highly synthetic and exclusively suffixing structure. With a primary focus on creating extensive words, Greenlandic attaches strings of suffixes to stems, resulting in complex formations. Although theoretically limitless, practical Greenlandic words seldom exceed six derivational suffixes, averaging three to five morphemes per word. The language boasts an extensive array of 400 to 500 derivational suffixes and approximately 318 inflectional suffixes.

The Greenlandic morphological landscape involves a blend of head and dependent marking, with both agents and patients marked on the predicate. Additionally, possessors are marked on nouns, and dependent noun phrases inflect for case. While full noun phrases follow an ergative-absolutive alignment, verbal morphology adheres to a nominative-accusative pattern, and pronouns maintain syntactic neutrality. Greenlandic linguistic features span four persons, two numbers, eight moods, and eight cases. Notably, Greenlandic is distinct as the only Eskimo language to have lost its dual.

Declension:

The declension in Greenlandic involves various cases in both singular and plural forms, each serving specific grammatical roles. Verbs exhibit bipersonal inflection for both subject and object, and possessive noun phrases undergo inflection for possessor and case.

Syntax:

Greenlandic distinguishes three open word classes: nouns, verbs, and particles. Verbs showcase inflection for person, number, and mood. Nouns exhibit inflection for possession and case, while particles remain uninflected. The verb, an essential element in a sentence, effectively functions as a clause due to its inflections for both subject and object.

Word Order:

In transitive clauses with expressed object and subject noun phrases, the neutral word order is SOV/SOXV, where X is a noun phrase in an oblique case. While basic word order is pragmatically neutral, topical noun phrases initiate a clause, and new or emphasized information typically concludes the clause, usually represented by the verb.

Coordination and Subordination:

Syntactic coordination and subordination involve combining predicates in superordinate and subordinate moods. The order of main and subordinate clauses is flexible, influenced largely by pragmatic considerations.

Obviation and Switch-Reference:

Greenlandic's pronominal system includes obviation or switch-reference, marked by a special fourth person. It distinguishes between a third person subject of a subordinate verb and the possessor of a noun co-referent with the third person subject of the matrix clause.

Indefiniteness Construction:

Greenlandic lacks a category of definiteness. Information about participants' familiarity is conveyed through means such as the use of antipassive or intransitive object constructions, noun incorporation, and strategies indicating participants' relevance to the discourse.

Verbs Greenlandic verbs exhibit a high degree of complexity in their morphology. The primary processes involved are inflection and derivation. Inflectional morphology encompasses obligatory markings for mood, person, and voice (although tense and aspect are not inflectional categories in Kalaallisut). Derivational morphology, similar to English adverbs, alters the meaning of verbs. There are numerous derivational suffixes, often referred to as postbases, particularly in the American tradition of Eskimo grammar, due to their semantic significance. These "heavy" suffixes can convey concepts like possession, existence, speech, or thought. A Greenlandic verb is constructed with a root, followed by derivational postbases, and then inflectional suffixes, with optional tense and aspect markers placed between the derivational and inflectional suffixes.

Inflection: Greenlandic verbs undergo inflection for agreement with the agent and patient, as well as for mood and voice. The eight moods include indicative, interrogative, imperative, optative, causative, conditional, contemporative, and participial. Verbal roots can be transitive, intransitive, or negative, resulting in eight mood suffix forms for each paradigm. The complexity deepens in transitive suffixes that encode both agent and patient within a single morpheme, leading to an intricate system of up to 48 different suffixes covering all possible combinations. Notably, some moods lack forms for all persons, contributing to a total of approximately 318 verbal inflectional suffixes.

Indicative and Interrogative Moods: The indicative mood prevails in independent expository clauses, while the interrogative mood is employed for questions without the question particle "immaqa."

Examples: Interrogative Mood: napparsima-vit? "Are you sick?"

Indicative Mood: naamik, no, napparsima-nngila-nga "No, I am not sick."

Tables illustrating intransitive inflections for the indicative and interrogative moods are provided, showcasing the variations based on person and number.

Transitive Indicative Mood: Singular Subject First Person Singular Second Person Singular Third Person Singular asavarma "You love me" asavaanga "He/she/it loves me" asavakkit "I love you" asavaatit "He/she/it loves you" asavara "I love him/her/it" asavat "You love her/him/it" asavatsigut "You love us" asavaatigut "He/she/it loves us" asavassi "I love you (pl.)" asavaasi "He/she/it loves you (pl.)" asavakka "I love them" asavatit "You love them" asavai "He/she/it loves them"

Derivation: Greenlandic boasts a highly productive verbal derivation system with numerous derivational suffixes. A single verb may incorporate multiple derivational suffixes, leading to lengthy words. Examples showcase how derivational suffixes modify the meaning of verbs, expressing concepts like exhaustion, initiation, proficiency, intention, and negation.

Examples: -katak- "be tired of" taku-katap-para "I am tired of seeing it/him/her"

-ler- "begin to/be about to" neri-ler-pugut "We are about to eat"

-niar- "plans to/wants to" aallar-niar-poq "He plans to travel"

-ngajak- "almost" sini-ngajap-punga "I had almost fallen asleep"

-nngitsoor- "not anyway/after all" tiki-nngitsoor-poq "He hasn't arrived after all"

Time Reference and Aspect: Greenlandic grammar utilizes morphological devices to convey distinctions between recent and distant past, but their application is optional. Rather than employing tense markers, fixed temporal distance is often expressed through temporal adverbials. The indicative mood, in the absence of explicit adverbials, is interpreted based on the verbal lexical aspect—either complete or incomplete.

Examples: toqo-riikatap-poq "He died long ago" nere-qqammer-punga "I ate recently" Piitaq arpap-poq "Yesterday Peter was running"

Greenlandic incorporates several derivational devices for expressing aspect and lexical aspect, such as sar (habituality) and ssaar (stop to). Two major perfect markers, sima and nikuu, are utilized with nuanced functions, including evidentiality.

Examples: tiki(k)-nikuu-sima-voq "Apparently, she had arrived" qia-sima-voq "He cried (his eyes are swollen)" qia-nikuu-voq "He cried (I was there)"

Voice: Greenlandic features an antipassive voice, transforming the ergative subject into an absolutive subject and the absolutive object into an instrumental argument. Passive voice constructions involve elements like -saa-, -neqar-, and -tit-. An "impersonal passive" from intransitive verbs, -toqar-, has also been identified.

Noun Incorporation: The debate on noun incorporation in Greenlandic centers on whether it allows incorporation in the conventional sense or forms verbs that include noun roots. While some argue for incorporation, others contend that the morphemes in question are derivational, creating denominal verbs.

Examples: qimmeq-qar-poq "He works as a doctor" Qallunaa-tut "Danish language (like a Dane)"

Nouns: Nouns in Greenlandic undergo inflection for case and number, and sometimes for the number and person of the possessor. The language distinguishes between singular and plural forms, employing eight cases: absolutive, ergative (relative), instrumental, allative, locative, ablative, prosecutive (also known as vialis or prolative), and equative. Singular and plural distinctions, along with case and number, are marked by a single suffix. Nouns can be derived from verbs or other nouns through various suffixes; for example, "atuar-" (to read) combined with "-fik" (place) yields "atuarfik" (school), and further combined with "-tsialak" (something good) results in "atuarfitsialak" (good school).

There is a theory that Greenlandic may distinguish between transitive and intransitive nouns, similar to its treatment of verbs, due to the similarity or identity of possessive agreement suffixes on nouns and transitive agreement suffixes on verbs.

Pronouns: Personal pronouns exist for the first, second, and third person in both singular and plural. These pronouns are optional as subjects or objects, but only when the verbal inflection refers to such arguments. However, personal pronouns are mandatory in the oblique case. For instance, "illit" means "you," and in the oblique case, it is used in sentences like "He told you to eat."

Case: Greenlandic utilizes grammatical core cases, such as ergative and absolutive, to convey the grammatical and syntactical roles of participant noun phrases. Oblique cases are employed to express information related to movement and manner.

In Kalaallisut, case endings for singular and plural include:

Absolutive: -Ø, -(i)t Ergative: -(u)p, -(i)t Instrumental: -mik, -nik Allative: -mut, -nut Locative: -mi, -ni Ablative: -mit, -nit Prosecutive: -kkut, -tigut Equative: -tut, -tut The instrumental case is versatile, used for the instrument of action, oblique objects of intransitive verbs, and secondary objects of transitive verbs. The allative case indicates movement towards something, the locative case describes spatial location, the ablative case denotes movement away from something, and the prosecutive case conveys movement through something or the medium of writing.

Possession: In Greenlandic, possession is marked on the noun that agrees with the person and number of its possessor. The possessor appears in the ergative case. Different possessive paradigms exist for each case. For example, "Anda-p" (Anda-erg) combined with "illu-a" (house-3sg/poss) results in "Anda's house."

=Writing System=

Greenlandic is expressed using the Latin script, comprising 18 letters:

A E F G I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V

Additional letters ⟨b, c, d, h, w, x, y, z, æ, ø, å⟩ are employed for spelling loanwords, particularly from Danish and English. Quotation marks in Greenlandic use "..." and »...«.

From 1851 to 1973, Greenlandic utilized an alphabet created by Samuel Kleinschmidt, featuring the letter kra (⟨ĸ⟩, capitalized ⟨K’⟩), later replaced by ⟨q⟩ in the 1973 reform. The Kleinschmidt alphabet indicated long vowels and geminate consonants through diacritics on vowels, with circumflex (◌̂) for long vowels and acute accent (◌́) for gemination of the following consonant. Vowel length and gemination were represented by a tilde (◌̃) or a grave accent (◌̀). For instance, Kalaallit Nunaat was spelled Kalãlit Nunât or Kalàlit Nunât. Characters ⟨ê, ô⟩, previously used before ⟨r, q⟩, are now written as ⟨ee, oo⟩ in modern Greenlandic. The Nunatsiavummiutut spelling system, spoken in Nunatsiavut in northeastern Labrador, derives from the old Greenlandic system.

The Kleinschmidt orthography focused on morphology, maintaining consistency in writing derivational affixes regardless of their pronunciation variations. The 1973 reform introduced a phonological system, aligning written forms with pronunciation. Consequently, the same suffix is now written differently in various contexts, reflecting phonological changes. While transitioning from the old orthography to the new is straightforward, the reverse necessitates a comprehensive lexical analysis.