Inuktitut

=Introduction=

Inuktitut, also known as Eastern Canadian Inuktitut, is a prominent Inuit language spoken in various regions of Canada. The name is derived from "inuk," meaning 'person,' and "-titut," signifying 'like' or 'in the manner of.' It is one of the principal Inuit languages, encompassing areas north of the North American tree line, where trees cease to grow due to latitude. Inuktitut is spoken in parts of the provinces of Newfoundland and Labrador, Quebec, northeastern Manitoba, as well as the Northwest Territories and Nunavut. The language is written using Canadian Aboriginal syllabics.

In Nunavut, Inuktitut holds official language status alongside Inuinnaqtun, collectively known as Inuktut. Additionally, it is recognized as one of eight official indigenous languages in the Northwest Territories. Legal recognition in Nunavik, a part of Quebec, is attributed to the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement. The Charter of the French Language acknowledges Inuktitut as the official language of instruction for Inuit school districts in Nunavik. The language also enjoys recognition in Nunatsiavut, the Inuit area in Labrador, following the ratification of agreements with the government of Canada and the province of Newfoundland and Labrador.

According to the 2016 Canadian census, 70,540 individuals identify themselves as Inuit, with 37,570 reporting Inuktitut as their mother tongue. The term "Inuktitut" also refers to a macrolanguage that includes Inuvialuktun and, consequently, nearly all Inuit dialects of Canada. However, Statistics Canada categorizes all Inuit languages in the Canadian census as Inuktut.

=Background=

Inuktitut, also referred to as Eastern Canadian Inuktitut (ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ), is a native language spoken in Canada. Its primary regions of use include the Northwest Territories, Nunatsiavut (Newfoundland and Labrador), Nunavik (Quebec), and Nunavut. As of the 2021 census, there are approximately 38,000 native speakers (L1) and a total of 42,000 speakers when considering both native and second-language speakers (L1 + L2). In terms of language family, Inuktitut belongs to the Eskimo–Aleut family, specifically the Inuit branch.

The language has several dialects, including Qikiqtaaluk nigiani (South Baffin), Nunavimmiutitut (Quebec), Inuttitut (Labrador), and Inuktun (Thule). Inuktitut is written using various writing systems, including Inuktitut syllabics, Inuktitut Braille, and the Latin alphabet. It holds official language status in Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, and it is a recognized minority language in Quebec (Nunavik), Newfoundland and Labrador (Nunatsiavut), and Yukon (Inuvialuit Settlement Region).

The language is regulated by Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami and various local institutions. In terms of language codes, Inuktitut is represented by ISO 639-1 code "iu" and ISO 639-2 code "iku." The inclusive ISO 639-3 code for Inuktitut is "iku," and individual codes include "ike" for Eastern Canadian Inuktitut and "ikt" for Inuinnaqtun. The Glottolog classification for Eastern Canadian Inuktitut is "east2534," and the language is also identified in the Ethnologue as "Inuktitut" with the ELP code "Inuktitut."

=History=

In the Canadian school system, the role of Inuktitut has evolved over time. Traditionally, Inuit learned essential skills through example and participation, with the Inuktitut language providing them with the vocabulary to describe traditional practices and natural features. Initially, Inuktitut was solely an oral language. However, with the arrival of colonialism and the European schooling system in Canada, formal education was introduced by missionaries from the Anglican and Roman Catholic churches. These early educators utilized the Inuktitut language for instruction and developed writing systems.

The landscape of Inuit education underwent significant changes, notably in 1928 when the first residential school for Inuit opened, shifting the language of instruction to English. As government involvement in the North increased, the education of Inuit also came under its purview. Post-World War II, English became the designated language for communication in various domains, raising concerns about Inuit employability if they couldn't communicate in English. Inuit were expected to use English in schools, workplaces, and even during leisure activities, contrasting with their view of Inuktitut as a means of expressing identity and emotions, while English was perceived as a tool for economic pursuits.

In the 1960s, attitudes toward Inuktitut began to shift, recognizing its value for preservation. Advocates argued that knowledge, especially in the early years of schooling, is best conveyed in the mother tongue. This marked the beginning of bilingual schools. By 1969, a majority of Inuit voted to replace federal schools with programs administered by the General Directorate of New Quebec, teaching content in Inuktitut, English, and French.

Legislation played a crucial role in shaping the status of Inuktitut. In 1984, it became one of the official languages in the Northwest Territories, secured by the Northwest Territories Official Language Act. Following the division of the territory into NWT and Nunavut in 1999, both regions retained the Language Act. In Nunatsiavut, Labrador, Inuktitut attained the status of the government language in 2005. In Nunavik, the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement recognized Inuktitut in the education system. These developments underscore the ongoing efforts to preserve and promote the use of Inuktitut within the Canadian educational framework.

=Dialects

Nunavut, with its basic law, recognizes four official languages: English, French, Inuktitut, and Inuinnaqtun. The distinction between Inuktitut and Inuinnaqtun as separate languages is ambiguous in state policy. The terms "Inuktitut" and "Inuktut" (Inuit language) are increasingly used interchangeably to refer to both Inuinnaqtun and Inuktitut collectively, referred to as "Inuit languages" in English. Nunavut, home to around 24,000 Inuit, sees over 80% of its population speaking Inuktitut, with some 3,500 reported as monolinguals. The South Baffin dialect is prevalent in the southern part of Baffin Island, including Iqaluit, the territorial capital.

Nunavut has implemented immersion programs in its education system since the early 2000s to preserve and promote Inuktitut. Pirurvik, Iqaluit's Inuktitut language training center, has aimed to train instructors from Nunavut communities to teach Inuktitut in various ways and dialects since 2012.

In Nunavik, Quebec, approximately 80.9% of Quebec Inuit speak Inuktitut. The Nunavik dialect is close to the South Baffin dialect but not identical. Due to the political and physical boundary between Nunavik and Nunavut, the Nunavik dialect is undergoing standardization as something distinct from other forms of Inuktitut. Subdialects in Nunavik include Tarrarmiut and Itivimuit.

In Labrador, the Nunatsiavut dialect, once spoken across northern Labrador, has a distinct writing system developed in Greenland. It has become a separate dialect with a distinct literary tradition. Inuktitut is seriously endangered in Labrador, with only 550 reporting it as their native language in the 2001 census.

Greenland hosts Inuktun or Polar Eskimo, often considered a dialect of Greenlandic but originating from the Eastern Canadian Arctic as late as the 18th century.

=Phonology= The Eastern dialects of Inuktitut feature fifteen consonants and three vowels, which can be either short or long. Consonants are organized into six places of articulation: bilabial, labiodental, alveolar, palatal, velar, and uvular. Three manners of articulation include voiceless stops, voiced continuants and nasals, as well as two additional sounds—voiceless fricatives. Natsalingmiutut introduces an extra consonant /ɟ/, a remnant of the retroflex consonants of Proto-Inuit. In contrast, Inuinnaqtun has one fewer consonant, as /s/ and /ɬ/ have merged into /h/. All Inuktitut dialects share three basic vowels and distinguish between short and long forms of each vowel phonologically. In the Nunavut standard Roman orthography, known as Inuujingajut, long vowels are represented by a double vowel.

Inuktitut Vowels:

Open Front Unrounded:

Short: /a/ represented as 'a' Long: /aː/ represented as 'aa' Closed Front Unrounded:

Short: /i/ represented as 'i' (realized as [e] or [ɛ] before uvular consonants [ʁ] and [q]) Long: /iː/ represented as 'ii' Closed Back Rounded:

Short: /u/ represented as 'u' (realized as [o] or [ɔ] before uvular consonants [ʁ] and [q]) Long: /uː/ represented as 'uu' Inuktitut Consonants in Inuujingajut and IPA Notation:

Labial:

Nasal: /m/ Stop: /p/ Coronal:

Nasal: /n/ Stop: /t/ Palatal:

Stop: /ɟ/ (not present in many dialects) Lateral Fricative: /ɬ/ Velar:

Nasal: /ŋ/ Stop: /k/ (in some dialects realized as a fricative /x/) Uvular:

Nasal: /ɴ/ Stop: /q/ Glottal:

Fricative: /v, s, ʁ, h/ (replaces /s/ and /ɬ/ in Inuinnaqtun) All voiceless stops are unaspirated, and the voiceless uvular stop is often written as 'q' but occasionally as 'r.' The voiced palatal stop is absent in many dialects and may be written as 'r̂' to distinguish it from /j/. Geminated /ŋ/ is represented as 'nng,' and /ŋ/ is written as 'ng.' The voiceless lateral fricative is romanized as 'ɬ' but may also be written as '&,' or simply as 'l.'

=Grammar=

Inuktitut, akin to other Eskimo–Aleut languages, boasts an intricate morphological system characterized by the addition of successive morphemes to root words. This system efficiently conveys meanings that, in languages like English, would necessitate the use of several words. (Refer also to: Agglutinative language and Polysynthetic language.) The construction of words in Inuktitut involves affixing morphemes to a root morpheme. The language features an extensive array of distinct suffixes, reaching up to 700 in some dialects. Despite this complexity, Inuktitut adheres to highly regular rules, devoid of exceptions found in English and other Indo-European languages, although these rules can sometimes be intricate.

Illustrative of this morphological richness is the word "qangatasuukkuvimmuuriaqalaaqtunga" (ᖃᖓᑕᓲᒃᑯᕕᒻᒨᕆᐊᖃᓛᖅᑐᖓ), meaning 'I'll have to go to the airport:[16]'

Morpheme: qangata Meaning: Verbal root, signifying 'to raise/to be raised in the air' Morpheme: suuq Meaning: Verb-to-noun suffix, indicating 'one who habitually performs an action' (resulting in 'qangatasuuq: airplane,' where -q is deleted) Morpheme: kkut Meaning: Noun-to-noun suffix, denoting 'group' (with deletion of -t) Morpheme: vik Meaning: Noun-to-noun suffix, expressing 'enormous' (yielding 'qangatasuukkuvik: airport,' where -k changes to -m) Morpheme: mut Meaning: Noun ending, in the dative singular form, indicating 'to' (with -t+a changing to -u) Morpheme: aq Meaning: Noun-to-verb suffix, connoting 'arrival at a place; to go' (resulting in 'qangatasuukkuvimmuuriaqalaaqtuunga,' where -q+ja is deleted) Morpheme: jariaq Meaning: Verb-to-noun suffix, representing 'the obligation to perform an action' (with deletion of -q) Morpheme: qaq Meaning: Noun-to-verb suffix, denoting 'to have' (resulting in 'qangatasuukkuvimmuuriaqalaaqtunga,' where -q is deleted) Morpheme: laaq Meaning: Verb-to-verb suffix, indicating 'future tense, will' (with -q+j changing to -q+t) Morpheme: junga Meaning: Verb ending, signifying 'participle, first person singular, I'

=Writing System=

Latin Alphabets: In the western part of Nunavut and the Northwest Territories, a Latin alphabet known as Inuinnaqtun or Qaliujaaqpait is utilized. This choice reflects the influence of missionaries who arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, aiming to introduce Inuit communities to Christianity and the Bible. Moravian missionaries played a pivotal role in developing an Inuktitut alphabet in Greenland during the 1760s, based on the Latin script. This alphabet, which includes the letter kra (ĸ), was later brought to Labrador in the 1800s. The Alaskan Yupik and Inupiat, alongside developing their own syllabary, and the Siberian Yupik also adopted Latin alphabets.

Qaniujaaqpait: Most Inuktitut in Nunavut and Nunavik is written using Qaniujaaqpait or Inuktitut syllabics, based on Canadian Aboriginal syllabics. Missionaries introduced this system to Eastern Canadian Inuit in the 1860s, having developed it in their efforts to convert the Cree to Christianity. The Netsilik Inuit in Kugaaruk and north Baffin Island adopted Qaniujaaqpait by the 1920s. In September 2019, a unified orthography called Inuktut Qaliujaaqpait, based on the Latin alphabet without diacritics, was adopted for all varieties of Inuktitut by the national organization Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami. This orthography was designed to be used by speakers of any dialect from any region and allows typing on electronic devices without specialized keyboard layouts. It includes letters such as ff, ch, and rh, accommodating sounds present in some dialects but lacking standard equivalents in syllabics. Inuktut Qaliujaaqpait establishes a standard alphabet without specifying spelling or grammar rules, and long vowels are represented by doubling the vowel.

The Canadian Syllabary: The Inuktitut syllabary used in Canada is based on the Cree syllabary devised by missionary James Evans. Adopted by the Inuit Cultural Institute in Canada in the 1970s, this writing system has been classified by some as an abugida due to related glyphs for syllables starting with the same consonant. Inuit in Alaska, Inuvialuit, Inuinnaqtun speakers, and Inuit in Greenland and Labrador use Latin alphabets.

Braille: In 2012, Tamara Kearney, Manager of Braille Research and Development at the Commonwealth Braille and Talking Book Cooperative, developed a Braille code for the Inuktitut language syllabics based on their orientation. This code, used for representing Inuktitut in Braille, allows for machine translation from Unicode UTF-8 and UTF-16 using the liblouis Braille translation system. The book "ᐃᓕᐊᕐᔪᒃ ᓇᓄᕐᓗ" (The Orphan and the Polar Bear) became the first work ever translated into Inuktitut Braille.